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Download A music
download refers to the transferring of a
music file from an Internet-facing
computer or website to a user's local
computer. This term encompasses both legal
downloads and downloads of copyright
material without permission or payment if
required. Legal
music downloads typically involved the a
purchase of a song or album available for
downloading on the Internet. Downloading
music first became popular with file
sharing technologies such as peer-to-peer
networks, with people breaking copyright
laws by not paying for any of it. The
Recording Industry Association of America
(RIAA) claimed that this practice was
damaging the music industry, and a series
of law suits led to many of these networks
being closed down. However, those who
support such technologies argued that the
music industry said the same thing about
recordable tapes and CDs, and even when
recorded music came out as before then
artists got their money through live
performance, and that the industry should
embrace the advancements in technology
rather than enforce prohibitions on the
practice. Very little publishable academic
research has been done to clarify this
form of massive consumer
behavior. There is
a great deal of freely available music
online, which is distributed by the
copyright holders for various reasons.
(For instance, some university orchestras
have high-quality recordings of their
performances.) This fully legitimate free
music is often overlooked by the popular
media and is hardly a new development on
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Casinos Peer
to Peer A
peer-to-peer (or "P2P", or, rarely, "PtP")
computer network uses diverse connectivity
between participants in a network and the
cumulative bandwidth of network
participants rather than conventional
centralized resources where a relatively
low number of servers provide the core
value to a service or application.
Peer-to-peer networks are typically used
for connecting nodes via largely ad hoc
connections. Such networks are useful for
many purposes. Sharing content files (see
file sharing) containing audio, video,
data or anything in digital format is very
common, and realtime data, such as
telephony traffic, is also passed using
P2P technology. A pure
peer-to-peer network does not have the
notion of clients or servers, but only
equal peer nodes that simultaneously
function as both "clients" and "servers"
to the other nodes on the network. This
model of network arrangement differs from
the client-server model where
communication is usually to and from a
central server. A typical example for a
non peer-to-peer file transfer is an FTP
server where the client and server
programs are quite distinct, and the
clients initiate the download/uploads and
the servers react to and satisfy these
requests. The
earliest peer-to-peer network in
widespread use was the Usenet news server
system, in which peers communicated with
one another to propagate Usenet news
articles over the entire Usenet network.
Particularly in the earlier days of
Usenet, UUCP was used to extend even
beyond the Internet. However, the news
server system also acted in a
client-server form when individual users
accessed a local news server to read and
post articles. The same consideration
applies to SMTP email in the sense that
the core email relaying network of Mail
transfer agents is a peer-to-peer network
while the periphery of Mail user agents
and their direct connections is client
server. Some
networks and channels such as Napster,
OpenNAP and IRC server channels use a
client-server structure for some tasks
(e.g. searching) and a peer-to-peer
structure for others. Networks such as
Gnutella or Freenet use a peer-to-peer
structure for all purposes, and are
sometimes referred to as true peer-to-peer
networks, although Gnutella is greatly
facilitated by directory servers that
inform peers of the network addresses of
other peers. Peer-to-peer
architecture embodies one of the key
technical concepts of the Internet,
described in the first Internet Request
for Comments, RFC 1, "Host Software" dated
7 April 1969. More recently, the concept
has achieved recognition in the general
public in the context of the absence of
central indexing servers in architectures
used for exchanging multimedia
files. The
concept of peer to peer is increasingly
evolving to an expanded usage as the
relational dynamic active in distributed
networks, i.e. not just computer to
computer, but human to human. Yochai
Benkler has coined the term "commons-based
peer production" to denote collaborative
projects such as free software. Associated
with peer production are the concept of
peer governance (referring to the manner
in which peer production projects are
managed) and peer property (referring to
the new type of licenses which recognize
individual authorship but not exclusive
property rights, such as the GNU General
Public License and the Creative Commons
licenses). |
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